As noted in Thoughts from The Frontier: Jacob Lestschinsky, Demographer and Scholar, this essay – “Terror in Polish Universities”, from April of 1939 – is the last of Lestschinsky’s five pre-war writings published in the Jewish Frontier during the late 1930s. Here, Lestschinsky revisits Polish Jewry through the experiences of Jewish students in Polish academic institutions. Alas, the point all-too-soon became moot: The Second World War began in Europe five months after the publication of this article.
The previous essays are:
The Jews of Central Europe – June, 1938
The Fate of Six Million – July, 1938
Jews in Baltic Lands – August, 1938
In Fascist Rumania – September, 1938
Lestschinsky’s final Jewish Frontier essay, published three years after the Second World War’s end, is:
Jewish Expressions in the U.S.S.R. – December, 1948
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The Jewish students are determined not to yield any of the positions.
The decrease in their number is due not only to the limitations on enrollment
but also to the fact that some left the Polish universities
to attend those in foreign countries and others gave up their studies altogether.
The majority, however, remain in the universities,
attend the lectures and refuse the hoodlums the pleasure of having driven them out.
They remain standing for five and six hours during lectures;
they are often humiliated and beaten, but they do not yield.
______________________________
Terror in Polish Universities
April, 1939
“ATTACKS FROM the rear and ganging up against individuals have become normal occurrences among Polish students. The academic authorities and officials are being terrorized… Conscious deception is employed together with clubs, stink bombs, tear gas and iron weapons. Let those who originated this method of struggle not try to persuade us that the “holy war” against the Jews justifies even such means. A war of one people against another is also subject to laws of moral honor. No self-respecting army will dishonor the military name by designating as a soldier one who uses weapons to attack an unarmed person.
“Only a few years ago none would have believed that armed criminals would be free to attack defenseless persons in the institutions of higher learning.”
Who was the author of this speech? Who was it that dared to characterize the Polish students, the future leaders and lawmakers of Poland, in such terms?
The speech was not made by a Jew or a Socialist, nor even by a democrat. It was delivered by none other than the vice-minister of education, Professor Cornel Ojeski on April 5, 1937 and it was broadcast over the Polish radio.
But despite this one and similar speeches, recent years have witnessed the murder of many Jewish students and the wounding of hundreds in Polish universities. Ghetto benches were instituted in the class rooms and the Polish universities were transformed into such a purgatory for Jewish students that attending lectures is now fraught with mortal danger, in the literal meaning of the word.
The tragi-comedy in the Polish universities began soon after the jubilation over the newly found independence. In the very first years of Polish sovereignty, the “Nardowo” democrats, a pre-war anti-Semitic party, sponsored the demand for limitation on the number of Jews in the universities. The demand for legislation by the Sejm they supported by organized attacks on Jewish students in the schools. But Poland was at that time dependent on France and Poincare intervened to prevent the liberated country from taking the shameful step. Those were golden days for Polish Jewry and they are now forgotten. As the years went by, the attacks increased, but until 1933 they were still of a sporadic nature. But since that year the attacks became more clearly organized and consistent and also more murderous and dangerous in scope. No less than twenty-five Jewish students were killed during the past 5-6 years; several hundred were seriously wounded; two students became insane after being subjected to several attacks and hundreds of students voluntarily left the universities. But the 4,000 still remaining, are conducting a heroic struggle against the shameful segregation and the ghetto benches that were instituted in their “alma maters,” and against the return of medievalism in schools where only 25 years ago Jewish students offered their lives in the fight against the Czarist regime and for the liberation of Poland.
The first demand of the anti-Semites for a “numerus clausus” has long ago been fulfilled. The following figures illustrate how subserviently the government carries out the commands of the “armed criminals” in the universities of free Poland. In 1933 there were 51,770 students in the Polish universities. Of this number, 9,694, or 18.7% were Jews. Since 91% of all the students came from urban families and the Jews constitute 27% of the urban population, it is obvious that the Jews were entitled to a much higher percentage. That would be true even if we were to abandon the natural and healthy principle of free and unhampered choice of professions by the citizens and substitute in its stead the dangerous and abnormal point of view that people should enter professional life on a national basis and not on the basis of individual abilities.
In 1935, only 7,114 Jewish students remained and in 1938 their number still further decreased to 4,791 or 9.9% of the entire student body. The demands of the “armed criminals” on the Polish campus were thus completely fulfilled.
But appetite increases with the eating and anti-Semites are never satisfied. During the last semester a new program was embarked on – the complete elimination of Jewish students. The following documents testify to the progress that has been made in the direction of the ideals of those whose hands are smeared with the blood of murdered and wounded colleagues. The dean of the Warsaw Polytechnicum issued the following declaration at the beginning of the last semester:
“In view of various false rumors, I wish to inform that in 1937 6.3% of the students enrolled were Jews; in 1938, 5.6% and this year only 4.7%. On the basis of the order of the dean during the previous year, those who do not wish to sit together with Jewish students, will be enabled to do so. That order clearly indicated what is to be done in case one does not adjust himself to it.”
Such are the words of a teacher to the hooligans. He calms them with the assurance that their program is gradually being carried out. By now there are certainly no more than 4,000 Jewish students, but since the number admitted grows smaller each year, the “ideal” state will soon be attained. However, this concession seems to be inadequate and the dean hints that there are additional ways of getting rid of Jews – ejecting them if they refuse to occupy the ghetto benches. Since the dean knows very well that the Jews refuse to occupy these benches, his remark must be interpreted as a direct incitement against his own students.
But the fact that there still remain 4,000 Jewish students, does not sufficiently clarify the situation. It is also essential to know into what colleges they are admitted. Now Jew may become a professor or high school teacher in Poland. Of the 1,672 professors and instructors in Poland in 1936, only 36 were Jews. Some of these died since that time. The ones that remain, have kept their positions from pre-way days when these institutions were Austrian universities. No new Jewish instructors were engaged since that time. The older ones die of heart attacks and the day is not far off when Polish universities will be entirely free of Jews. It is no exaggeration when we say that many Jews in Poland die of heart attacks, professors included. Thus it is well known that the world famous Jewish brain specialist, Professor Rosen of the Vilna University, died of a heart attack when he saw his own daughter standing during a lecture of her father together with the other Jewish students who refused to occupy the ghetto benches. This professor, who had been entrusted with the examination of the brain of Pilsudski, was a one hundred percent assimilationist who never even hinted that he belonged to the oppressed and persecuted Jewish group. His heart failed when he was forced to taste of ghetto segregation.
The few Jews that are allowed to register are admitted to courses in philology and philosophy, courses which offer nothing practical. From medicine and law, professions in which individual ability and efforts are very important, Jews are almost entirely excluded. During last semester’s registration at the University of Cracow, no Jews were admitted to medical and pharmacy courses; 20 were registered in the school of philosophy; 3 in chemistry. In the University of Lemberg 3 were accepted into the medical school (out of 130 who applied), none were admitted to pharmacy courses, four were registered in the law school (out of 400 students enrolled) and 17 in the humanities courses (out of 150 enrolled).
In order to give a clearer picture of everyday life on a Polish campus, I will quote at length from an interpellation introduced in the Polish Sejm by the Jewish deputy, Dr. Sommerstein:
“On Friday, November 18 (1938), drawings of bridge designs were made in the main building of the Polytechnicum of Lemberg. The exercises ended at five P.M. A group of five Jewish students were the first to reach the door but Polish students barred their way and did not allow them to leave through the main gate. They finally succeeded in breaking their way through. The other Jewish students could not leave through the gate which was occupied by a larger number of Poles. The Jewish student, Berthold Meister, went up to the second floor and warned his colleagues not to go to the gate. A large group of Polish students meanwhile gathered in the office of the dean. Two Jewish students, Deutscher and Kloper, hid in the office of Professor Brotry where they remained until 9 P.M. The remaining seven Jews persuaded the assistant to give them shelter in the office of Instructor Chmilewitch. They were warned to maintain perfect silence and to put out the lights so that none might suspect their presence. But the door of the office was suddenly broken open by a large group of Polish students. The attack did not last long. When the light was turned on it was found that of the Jewish students Proweler was lying unconscious from his wounds; Lehrer was bleeding profusely from wounds in the abdomen and head; Meister was severely beaten about the head; Sheftler was beaten about the head and had a wounded on his arm; Ruf was bruised as a result of being kicked; Roichbergen was lightly wounded. Proweler died of his wounds a few hours later.
This interpellation in the Sejm also established the fact that the university authorities were aware of the impending attack but provided no defense. The event described was the second one of this sort during the same month. Two weeks earlier the Jewish student Carl Zelermeier was killed and three others were seriously wounded. It is true that this murder evoked the anger of a large number of Christians. At the funeral there were delegations from labor organizations and also from democratic non-Jewish groups.
The events described above are typical of all Polish universities during the past 5-6 years. Fortunately, they do not always culminate in death, but the order of the occurrences, attacks by hundreds on small groups, isolating the Jewish students in remote rooms, clubbing, stabbing with knives, beating with iron instruments – these have become normal events on Polish campuses. As soon as a lecture is over, the Jewish students hasten to the exit, but they are not always successful. Jews go about in groups, for numbers facilitate breaking through and self-defense. However, being a minority, they are beaten and murdered nevertheless.
What is the attitude of the professors?
The following is an illustration of their attitude. A professor of mathematics delivered a lecture. A Jewish student arrived after the lecture commenced and remained standing on the side. The Polish students demanded that he take his place on the special benches assigned to Jews. This he refused to do. The professor then interrupted his lecture and left the auditorium. The Poles ejected the Jewish student and also beat him. Then the professor returned and resumed his discourse. The attitude is typical of the majority of Polish professors. There exists a minority of about one hundred professors who protest against the attacks and the ghetto benches. Among the latter the professors Michalewitch, Kotorbinski and the ex Prime Minister Bartel, distinguished themselves. In a sharp denunciation of the student hooligans which he delivered to the Polish Senate, Bartel related that a questionnaire revealed that 48% of the students had never heard of Richard Wagner and 58% did not know who Poincare was. He also told that during the last semester he could not deliver 36% of his lectures because of rioting in the class room. Because of this speech Bartel was threatened with death. Within the university a movement of protest was organized against him which necessitated closing all the high schools in Lemberg.
A small group of Polish Socialists courageously fight the hoodlums and there have also been sacrifices of life on their part. One Polish student died of his wounds and several were wounded. The majority of the Polish students remain indifferent and participate neither in the attacks nor in the struggle against them. A large minority is actively, and almost exclusively, engaged in the attacks. But this minority commands a body of students far exceeding the number of Jews.
The Jewish students are determined not to yield any of the positions. The decrease in their number is due not only to the limitations on enrollment but also to the fact that some left the Polish universities to attend those in foreign countries and others gave up their studies altogether. The majority, however, remain in the universities, attend the lectures and refuse the hoodlums the pleasure of having driven them out. They remain standing for five and six hours during lectures; they are often humiliated and beaten, but they do not yield.
During recent weeks the Jewish Socialist and democratic parties organized a campaign of protest against the ghetto benches. This protest is actively supported by the Polish Socialist party and also by small groups of Polish liberals. We must note with regret, however, that liberals are becoming ever more rare in Poland.
We have now reached the most important aspect of this tragic situation – the attitude of the government. The Polish government can honestly boast of more hypocrisy than any other government in the world. It has so far not passed even a single law against Jewish students. The order concerning ghetto benches in the schools was issued by the authorities of the universities which are autonomous. The government has not organized any attacks on Jewish students but it also does nothing to defend them because it cannot send its policemen into the universities. The universities enjoy self government and Poland strictly observes the constitution. If the universities refuse to admit Jewish students – the government may not intervene – because of the constitution. We could cite tens of speeches, like the one quoted in the begging of this article, which are offered as proof that the government is innocent. What can it do? It is powerless against the written word of the constitution. It does not know how to infringe even on the least letter of the constitution; it has no experience in this field.
It is true that Poland has experience in changing entire constitutions, but that is different from encroaching on the autonomy of the universities and sending a few policemen to deprive the student hooligans of their knives. An entire constitution may be discarded – as was already done in rejuvenated Poland – and a new one may be written. But it would be too much to ask that the government transgress against a single paragraph of the law of the land. Of course, if a Communist is to distribute a few leaflets on the eve of the first of May, the government will find ways and justifications to break a hundred paragraphs of constitutional rights. But that would mean defending the entire state including the constitution. It is clear that that would be a different matter. But the Polish government stands in no danger of collapse as a result of twenty-five Jewish students being murdered; the state will not be affected as a result of hundreds being wounded. How then should one expect it to infringe on the constitution in such insignificant cases?
The Polish government therefore remains calm. From time to time it sends one of its two-faced representatives to deliver a fiery speech. After that happens, the university authorities know that they can proceed against the Jews and the armed “heroes” feel that they can continue to beat and to kill their Jewish colleagues for an entire year without any intervention.
A few weeks after the minister of education delivered the speech cited in the beginning, in which he declared that he considered it impossible to issue any order concerning ghetto benches, the university authorities promulgated such a decree and the “armed criminals” began a simultaneous campaign in all the schools, with clubs and iron bars for the total elimination of Jewish students.
The Polish government remains true to the written constitution.*
*The figures concerning the number of students and professors are taken from the official publication of the statistical bureau – Statistyka Szkolnictwa; 1936-38.